Psychological Tasks of Adolescence

• Coming to terms with their new physical selves
• Developing a new male or female emotional identity
• Resolving the differences between the norms and values of their peers and those of their parents
• Establishing and expressing their own moral convictions
• Developing a sense of self-responsibility
• Demonstrating the potential for financial self-sufficiency

A central problem for adolescents and young adults is to find out what kind of people they will be, what work they will do, what principles they will live by. This is partly a conscious, partly an unconscious process. In groping to find this identity, adolescents may try out a variety of roles: dreamer, cosmopolitan, cynic, leader of lost causes, ascetic, and so on. Some adolescents seem to find themselves early and directly: others take a long time and many side roads before they find their paths.

Adolescents have to separate themselves emotionally from their parents in order to find out who they are and what they want to be. Yet they are largely made from their parents—not only because they have inherited their genes from them but also because they have been patterning themselves after them all their lives. They must now pry themselves apart. The eventual outcome will be influenced by the extent of their dependency, the intensity of their rebelliousness and rivalry, and the kind of outside world they live in and what it asks of them.

Adolescence psychology – Taking risks

One way adolescents move toward independence is by taking risks. It’s easy for teens to underestimate risks, because they tend to see themselves as invulnerable. They have always been fine and therefore expect they always will be. Appeals to logic often fall on deaf ears; teens live in the real present, no the hypothetical future.

Not all risks are bad. A teen who bicycles across country or spends hour after hour practicing skateboard jumps is gaining skills, building self-esteem, and learning to exercise judgment. As adults, we are able to calculate risks and weigh benefits because as adolescents we learned, through trial and error, how much risk we were willing to take and what the cost of those risks can be.

Risk-taking, however, also has a dark side. The child who experiments with cigarettes just to be cool is likely to end up addicted to nicotine. Alcohol is an accepted part of adult culture, and it is all too easy for teens to drink. Getting drunk is a form of risk-taking—How much can you hold? Can you keep control?—that can easily end in tragedy when an intoxicated teen gets behind the wheel of a car.

Illegal drug use can progress to abuse and addiction in both troubled teens and in adolescents from good homes. Sexual activity is another way teens tempt fate. Nationally, the number of teen pregnancies is dropping, but the number of unwed teen parents in the United States is still higher than in many other wealthy nations.

The challenge for parents is to help teens take risks sensibly. Education on the dangers of cigarettes, alcohol, drugs, and irresponsible sex needs to start before the teen years. It’s good that many elementary and middle schools teach these subjects, but parents need to be involved, too.

You need to be very clear about your values, and teach by example as well as by word. It’s also wise to avoid putting your child in situations where the temptations are too great. Allowing a 16-year-old to stay later working on the school newspaper conveys trust and encourages responsibility. Leaving a 14-year-old home alone for a weekend invites unwise risk-taking.

This is precisely why adolescence psychology needs to be understood and dealt with in the best way.

Body odor

One of the earliest changes of adolescence is more profuse and stronger-smelling perspiration in the armpits. Some children (and parents, too) are not aware of the odor, which can cause unpopularity with schoolmates. Hygiene now becomes especially important. Daily washing with soap and perhaps the regular use of a suitable deodorant will control the odor.

Acne

Our understanding of the cause and treatment of pimples (acne) has changed a lot in recent years. The texture of the skin becomes coarser at puberty. The pores enlarge and secrete up to ten times more oil than previously. Some of the pores may become clogged with a combination of oil (sebum) and dead skin cells. (The skin cells that line the pores naturally die and peel off at regular intervals, to be replaced by new ones). When this plug of cells and oil comes into contact with the air, it oxidizes and turns black. This is how blackheads form. Bacteria that normally live on the skin may get into these enlarged, plugged pores and cause a pimple, which is a small infection. The same basic process that causes the usual acne pimples can also cause a deeper, scarring type of acne, which tends to run in families.

Two misconceptions abut acne have been cleared up by recent research. We now know that the pimples of acne are not caused by dirt, and we have also learned that certain foods, such as chocolate and fried foods, do no affect this skin condition. Pimples occur as a natural part of puberty in nearly all teenagers, whether they have dry or oily skin. Since squeezing a pimple can make the infection worse, teenagers should be encouraged to avoid doing it.

Some adolescents, worried about sex, imagine that their pimples are caused by sexual fantasies or masturbation. They can be assured that this isn’t true.

Children are entitled to all the help they can get with pimples, from their regular doctor, nurse practitioner, or a skin specialist, for the sake of improving their present appearance and spirits and to prevent the permanent scars that sometimes develop. With modern methods of treatment, great improvement can be made in most cases, and even the deeper, scarring type of acne can be kept under control. In some cases, a physician or nurse practitioner may prescribe an antibiotic, a topical benzoyl peroxide cream, or a medicine related to vitamin A. prescription treatments are often much more effective than over-the-counter ones.

Whatever the specific methods prescribed, there are also general measures that are believed to be helpful. Vigorous daily exercise, fresh air, and direct sunshine (wearing a suitable sunscreen to avoid sunburn) seem to improve many complexions. And it’s generally a good idea to wash the face with a mild soap or soap substitute and warm water in the morning and again at bedtime. There are soaps and topical medications that contain 5 to 10 percent benzoyl peroxide that can be purchased without a prescription. And there are many water-based cosmetic preparations (oil-based ones should be avoided) available for covering pimples and blemishes while nature takes it courses. After the hormonal surges of puberty die down, acne normally fades away.

Diet in adolescence

After the age of ten to twelve, it may become increasingly difficult to get children to accept a diet that is different from that of their friends and age-mates. Up to then they usually go along with their parents; ideas, especially if the parents are in agreement. In fact, they don’t think of such meals as a diet; they are just foods that appear regularly at mealtime. But after they have eaten with friends or at school for a few months, they may want to eat more hamburgers, potato chips, French fries, cheese, and ice cream and other sweet and creamy desserts. Other teens restrict their intakes excessively. It’s helpful to remember that teens who are active and growing quickly can eat huge portions and need every calorie.

If your children wonder what would happen if they broke your dietary rules at school, other children’s homes or restaurants, you can point out that they will be increasingly out of your sight and must decide more things for themselves. And you don’t want to snoop or punish them; you only want to serve them the best possible foods. Certainly the most powerful influence is for both parents to eat, politely, the thoughtful meals that have been prepared. Don’t hold back on the children’s favorite dishes until they have eaten what you consider the most healthful items—that’s always counterproductive.

There is an important reason why it’s sensible to avoid food arguments during adolescence. This is when rebellion against the parents’ diet is apt to be strongest and when the desire to eat the same foods as classmates and friends is strongest. Parents and nutritionists who have gone through this phase with adolescent children testify that there is a better chance that the children will revert to their parents’ diet in time if no issue is made of the rebellion. When a long, bitter conflict occurs over diet in adolescence, its pattern is more like to persist—for years.

Sleep

Along with the adolescent growth spurt comes an increased need for sleep. The average 10-year-old can get by with 8 or 9 hours a night; the average teen may need 9 or 10. Teens also naturally go to bed later and later and want to get up later and later in the morning. But of course school interferes, forcing them to get up early, even though they stayed up late. A teen who becomes sleepier (or crankier) through the week then tries to catch up by sleeping 14 hours straight on Saturday is not getting enough sleep. In this way, teens are very much like many adults in our too busy society. The consequences of too little sleep can include poor school performance, irritability with parents and siblings, even symptoms of depression. It can be very difficult to help a busy teen get enough sleep. But one of the main culprits, late night television, is fairly easy to deal with. Just say no. My own feeling is that television has no place in anyone’s bedroom.

Exercise

With adolescents being as busy as they often are, it may not seem necessary to advise that they get enough exercise. But schools often drop physical education requirements in high school, leading to a decline in physical fitness. Regular exercise, through competitive sports, dance, martial arts, or other pursuits, helps teens maintain energy, avoid obesity, and perhaps prevent depression. More is not necessarily better, however. Excessive exercise can be a sign of anorexia nervosa.

Timing

The first thing to realize is that there is a wide age range at which puberty begins. The largest number of girls begin their development at around the age of ten and have their first period at about twelve and a half. It’s not abnormal for girls to start at nine; some may start even earlier. Breast development may not begin until as late as twelve or thirteen, in which case the first menstrual period may not come until fourteen of fifteen.

The average boy starts puberty two years later than the average girl, at around twelve; some healthy boys start as late as fourteen or fifteen. Assessment of pubertal development should be a part of the annual checkup for teens. If puberty starts either very early or very late, the doctor or nurse practitioner needs to make sure that there is no medical condition causing the unusual timing.

puberty

The earliest changes of puberty occur deep inside the brain. Hormones flow from the brain through the bloodstream to the gonads (testicles or ovaries), switching them into high gear. The gonads in turn produce the main sex hormones, testosterone and estrogen, that trigger the rest of puberty. What exactly sets the brain into action in the first place, no one knows for sure.

Heredity, nutrition, and general health all influence the timing of puberty. In the United States, improved (or, at least, increased) nutrition during childhood has lowered the age of puberty by several years, and there is controversy about whether other factors, such as pesticides or hormones in foods, may also play a role.

Puberty development in girls

Let’s trace what happens to the average girl who starts puberty at age ten. When she was seven years old, she was growing two to two and a half inches a year. When she was 8, her rate of growth slowed down to perhaps one and three-quarter inches a year. Nature seemed to be putting on the brakes. Suddenly, at about ten, the brakes let go, and she begins to shoot up at the rate of three to three and a half inches a year for the next two years. Instead of putting on five to eight pounds a year, as she used to, she now gains from ten to twenty pounds a year. Her appetite increases significantly to make this gain possible.

Other things are happening, too

At the beginning of this time, her breasts begin to develop. The first thing noticed is a hard lump under the nipple. This may be frightening to parents because of the fear of breast cancer, but it is the normal onset of breast development. For the first year menstrual period nears, it rounds out into more nearly a hemisphere. Occasionally, one breast begins to develop months before the other. This is fairly common and nothing to worry about. The earlier developing breast tends to stay larger through puberty and may on occasion remain so permanently.

Soon after the breasts begin to develop, pubic hair starts to grow. Later, hair appears in the armpits. The hips widen. The skin texture changes. At twelve and a half, the average girl has her first menstrual period. This event is called menarche. By now her body has begun to look more like a woman’s. From this time on, her growing slows down rapidly.

In the year after her first period she will grow perhaps one and a half inches; in the year after that, perhaps three-quarters of an inch. In many girls menstrual periods are irregular and infrequent for the first year or two. This is not a sign that something is wrong; it only shows that full maturity was not reached at the time of the first period.

There is no one age at which puberty begins; each girl has an individual maturational rate and timetable. That a girl starts puberty much earlier or later than average usually doesn’t mean that her glands aren’t working right. It means only that she is on a faster or slower timetable. This individual timetable seems to be an inborn trait: parents who were early developers and the same holds for late developers. The 13-year-old who has shown no signs of pubertal development can be assured that she will develop, even though it may take her longer to do so.

There are other variations besides the age at which puberty development begins. In some girls, pubic hair appears months before the breasts start to develop. And once in a while, hair in the armpits is the earliest sign of change instead of a late one. The length of time between the first signs of puberty development and the coming of the first period is usually about two and a half years. If a girl has been fully mature for over two years or is over sixteen and has not had her first period, she should be evaluated by her physician.

It can be upsetting if the onset of puberty is later or earlier than average. The girl who begins puberty at eight may feel awkward and self-conscious when she finds herself the only girl in her class who’s shooting upward and acquiring the shape of a woman. The responses of teachers, parents, and peers can also be confusing. Also bothered is the girl who’s on a slow timetable. The 13-year-old who has shown no signs of puberty development may think she’s abnormal. Reassurance from her doctor may be helpful.

Puberty development in boys

The average boy begins two years later than the average girl, at 12 in contrast to her ten. The earlier developers among boys begin as early as 10, a few younger still. Plenty of slow developers start as late as 14, and there are a few who wait longer.

Pubic hair begins to grow first, then the testicles grow, and finally the penis begins to increase, first in length, then in diameter. All these events before the growth spurt, and may be known only to boy himself (in contrast to a girl’s development, where the first sign of puberty, breast development, is obvious to others).

During puberty, a boy may grow in height at double the rate as before. Height often increases first, along with arm length and shoe size, giving the early adolescent boy a gangly, uncoordinated look. The muscles fill in later, creating more of a manly shape.

At about the same time, the hair in the armpits and on the face grows thicker and longer. Then the voice cracks and deepens. In some boys, a small area under the breast nipples enlarges and may become tender; this is normal. In a few, the breasts enlarge enough to cause embarrassment and worry. This occurs more often in boys who are overweight. Medical reassurance can be helpful.

After about two years, the boy’s body has pretty much completed its transition. In the following few years he will continue to grow more slowly, finally stopping at around eighteen. Some later-developing boys will continue to grow even into their early twenties. Early pubertal development in boys is seldom upsetting; for a couple of years, an early-developing boy may be the tallest and strongest in the class (though very early development, before about age ten, should be evaluated medically).

Late development, on the other hand, can be very upsetting. The boy who is on a slow timetable of development, who is still a “shrimp” at 14 when most of his friends have turned almost into grown men, usually needs reassurance, and sometimes counseling, to help him cope. Size, physique, and athletic ability count for a lot at this age.

Some parents, instead of reassuring their son that he will develop in time and grow 8 or 9 inches in the process, take him on a hunt for a doctor who will give him growth hormone treatment. This only convinces him that something is really wrong with him. True, there are hormone preparations that bring on the signs of puberty at whatever age they are given.

However, there is no evidence that long-term psychological benefits will follow, and these treatments may cause a boy to end up shorter than he normally would be by prematurely stopping his bone growth. For the rare occasion when there may be too little or too much growth hormone production, a pediatric endocrinologist (hormone specialist) should be consulted before any decision is made about giving hormones.

Hiccups are very common and happen suddenly. When the diaphragm is contracted irregularly, the air gets into the windpipe. Due to this, the vocal chords get blocked for a fraction and produce the sound “hic”. Diaphragm is a large muscle and it is present on the stomach and under the lungs and it is involved in breathing.

Newborn hiccups

Hiccups are experienced by all of us during our lifetime and we experience it suddenly and it can happen any time. Newborn hiccups are of concern to everyone as they are not sure what can be the reason and how it can be avoided. The newborns are more prone to hiccups than the children or adults. Hiccups can be common for some and some might not even experience them often. Hiccups for a long time can cause some serious problems.

Newborn hiccups are very common and the baby starts hiccupping even before they are born. The new mother will be able to make out if the baby is hiccupping. According to a theory, if the baby hiccups in the womb, it means that it is preparing its lungs for outer world.

Newborn hiccups are seen often when the child is born and slowly reduces as the child grows and it decreases by the age of 9 months. There have been many theories which give a reason for newborn hiccups. Usually hiccups are seen after eating.

It has been suggested that newborn hiccups may happen due to the pressure which gets applied on the diaphragm of the baby due to full stomach. It has also been mentioned that it may also happen because of the air swallowed by the child during the breast feeding. And sometimes, the reason is unknown.

Parents concerned about the fact if the newborn hiccups are dangerous, then they are not. It is not a reason for the parents to worry about. It happens due to the contraction of the muscle and not due to any stress or stomach ache.

It is recommended to notice the time when the newborn hiccups start. They usually stop within 10 minutes and if they don’t, it is advisable to see a doctor.

If the baby has been hiccupping a lot, then there is a way to reduce the number of times it happens. It is advised to go slow on feeding and make sure breaks are given for the child to burp. If the baby starts hiccupping still, the burps won’t help anymore.

The parents who are worried about how to stop the newborn hiccups; there is no way to stop them once they start. Some drinks, like water or breast milk might help at times. However, this cannot be guaranteed and there is no reason to worry as this will stop by itself and doesn’t cause any stress to the baby.

There are also rare diseases that affect posture in children, and chronic illness and chronic fatigue (from any cause) can cause children to slump and sag. Overweight sometimes exaggerates swayback, knock-knees, and flat feet. Unusual tallness makes the self conscious adolescent duck the head. A child with poor posture needs regular examinations to make sure that there is no physical reason.

Many children slouch because of a lack of self-confidence. This may result from too much criticism at home, difficulties in school, or an unsatisfactory social life. People who are buoyant and sure of themselves show it in the way they sit and stand and walk. When parents realize how much the child’s feelings have to do with his posture, they can handle the problem more wisely.

The natural impulse of a parent, eager to have a child look good, is to keep after posture in children: “Remember the shoulders,” or “For goodness’ sake, stand up straight.” But the posture of children who are stooped over because their parents have always kept after them too much won’t be improved by more nagging.

Generally speaking, the best results come when the child receives posture work through  dance or other body-movement classes or from a physical therapist. In these places, the atmosphere is more businesslike than at home.

The parents may be able to greatly help a boy in carrying out his exercises at home if he wants help and they can give it in a friendly way. But their main job is to help the child’s spirit by aiding his school adjustment, fostering a happy social life, and making him feel adequate and self-respecting at home.

Check out what doctors have to say about posture in children-

While mastering this art of grasp, the infant moves to the next stage which is the raking grasp. This stage is the development of child between the ages of 6 to 9 months. The infant will be practicing the skills developed in the previous stages and now moves further for more development.

Raking grasp

In the raking grasp stage, the growth of the infant slows down. He will not be gaining lot of weight and height during this stage. In the previous months, the infant’s weight was increasing because the development was as such that the fat gets stored and he had his muscles building up. Hence, the height and weight increases. In this stage, it will slow down a bit and the doctors would be recommending more of growth nutrition’s to the infant to make sure he has a steady growth.

In the raking grasp stage, the infant becomes talented baby. He will now have the ability to balance and explore the environment with more independent nature. He will also learn how to sit and stand with the help of support. As the baby comes close to nine months, he will be able to sit by himself and learn to lean a bit to grab something.

The baby will be more active in the raking grasp stage. As he discovers his abilities, he will try to move around the place using creative methods. He may crawl, push himself front and back to move or use his butts to move forward. He will use creative methods like rolling across the floor.

Raking grasp can be defined as a stage, when the infant is able to open his fingers and grasp any object. In the pincer grasp, the infant uses thumb and index finger; whereas in this kind of grasp he will have a strong grasp on the objects he holds making sure he picks the objects with the fingers open. The development in this stage will help the infant feed himself a little and also help me hold his bottle or cup.

In the raking grasp stage, the child has intake of solid foods. The sense of smell and taste is developed in the child during the birth itself. The child may be influenced with the mother’s favorites; however, the child will have to be introduced to some foods regularly to get the taste of it. The sense of hearing and touching also develops in the raking grasp stage.

The infant will be able to judge the objects by sound and he also develops the sense of security by holding his favorite things. Sense of Sight is not left behind in the raking grasp stage. The child develops the sight as good as adults. He will be able to see objects close to him and as well far away from him.

To understand baby thrash, one has to know what yeast means, as this is nothing but a common yeast infection. Yeast is a part of digestive system and if there is any imbalance in the digestive system then the infection starts.

The babies usually come in contact with yeast during their birth, when they are moving down the canal. The possibility of baby thrash happens, when the yeast overgrows in the babies due to hormonal changes.

To understand if the trash is present in babies, one has to look for white patches. White patches can be seen when the baby is fed, so to confirm baby trash, one can touch the baby’s tongue with finger covered with gauze. If it is not trash, then it would come off easily and if it is baby thrash, the baby’s tongue will turn red and raw and there is a possibility that the tongue will bleed.

Baby thrush is most commonly present on the roof and sides of the mouth rather than the tongue. The white patches and spots in the baby’s mouth can be very painful.  This pain can be noticed, if the baby is finding difficulty during the feeding and nursing. If the baby cries during nursing or feeding on a bottle or a pacifier, then one can call a doctor to take help in clearing the baby thrush. Some babies are not troubled with this trash as it goes unnoticed for them.

Baby thrush needs no treatment initially, as it starts clearing by itself in few weeks. However, if the baby is not comfortable and one notices that the baby is in pain due to the trash, then the doctor can be consulted. The pediatrician may suggest using the medication for oral infection.

The prescription can be taken over the phone for baby thrush, where one can use the medication “Nystatin”. The medicine has to be used on the white patches, and it has to be applied in a form of paint. One can use their finger to do so and it has to be applied for at least 10 days and has to be applied several times during the day. This should ideally clear the infection in a week’s time and if this does not happen then doctor can be consulted for further medication.

Baby thrush can also cause yeast infection in diaper. If the infection happens in the diaper, one should consult a doctor for medication in the diaper area to get rid of the fungal infection.

It also recommended that one uses the Lotramin or Nystatin on their nipples, so that when the baby feeds, they can avoid the baby thrush from coming back. To prevent trash, one must make sure the use of unnecessary antibiotics for babies are avoided. It has also been advised that breastfeeding mothers should air dry their nipples in between the feeding session. This would prevent trash in babies.

Pictures of thrush in babies

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What causes thrush in babies mouth?

In fact there are a plethora of factors that can cause baby thrush. However the main causative agent is the bacteria that cause candidiasis. These bacteria can be transmitted through contact.

If the baby is feeding from a contaminated feeding bottle, it could lead to thrush infection. The microbes are not visible to the naked eye and thereof one must avoid overusing a feeding bottle or pacifier.

It is important to sterilize the pacifier and the feeding bottle before preparing milk for the baby. In certain cases where the baby care taker is lax or lazy in cleaning the baby’s tongue, it could also lead to thrush infection in the baby’s mouth. The milk residue that is left on the tongue must be cleaned on a regular basis with the help of clean wash cloth.

Baby thrush videos

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Baby eyes blocked tear duct – Another kind of very mild but chronic infection of the eyelids occurs in the early months in quite number of babies, most commonly in only one eye. The eye waters and tears excessively, particularly in windy weather. White matter collects in the corner of the eye and along the edges of the lids.

This discharge may keep the lids of baby eyes stuck together when the baby wakes up. This condition is caused by an obstructed tear duct. The tear duct leads from a small opening at the inner corner of the eye lid, first toward the nose, then down the side of the eye socket and into the nose cavity.

When this duct is partly plugged, the tears from baby eyes cant drain off as fast as they form. They well up in the eye and run down the cheek. The lids keep getting mildly infected because the eye is not being cleansed well by the tears. The usual treatment is a combination of prescription eye ointment or drops and gently massage of the tear ducts of baby eyes to open them up. Your doctor or nurse practitioner will show you how to do this.

Blocked tear ducts of baby eyes are fairly common and not serious, and they do not injure the eye. The condition may last for many months. The tendency is outgrown in most cases, even if nothing is done. If after year it is still bothersome, an eye doctor can clear the duct with a simple procedure.

When the lids of baby eyes are stuck together, you can soften the crust and open them by gently applying water with your clean fingers or a clean washcloth and warm water (not hot, because the eyelid skin is very sensitive to temperature). A plugged tear duct does not cause redness of the white of the eye.

Conjunctivitis in baby eyes – This bacterial or viral infection of the lining of the white of the eye causes the white of the eyes to look bloodshot or pink. Usually there is discharge of yellow or white pus from the eye. The doctor or nurse practitioner should be called promptly.

Crossed baby eyes – It is common for a baby’s eyes to turn in or out too much at moments in the early months, in most cases they become steady and straight as the child grows older, usually by three months. If, however the eyes turn in or out all the time of much of the time, even in the first month, or if they are not steady by three months, an eye doctor should be consulted.

Many times parents think their baby’s eyes are crossed when they are really straight. This is because the skin between the baby eyes (over the bridge of the nose) is relatively wider in a baby than in an older person. This extra skin covers a little of the white of the eye (toward the nose), causing it to appear to be much smaller than the white on the outer side (toward the ear).

It is also not uncommon in a newborn baby for the lid of one eye to droop a little lower than the other or for one eye to look smaller. In most cases, these differences become less and less noticeable as the baby grows older. The baby’s eyes should be examined, though, to be sure that they are straight.

Another reason for the baby eyes sometimes appear crossed is that when they are looking at something in their hands, they have to converge (cross) the eyes a lot to focus on it since babies’ arms are so short. They only converging their eyes normally, as adults do to a lesser extent. Their eyes won’t get stuck in that position.

Parents often ask whether it is safe to hang toys over the crib, since the baby sometimes becomes cross-eyed when looking at them. Don’t hang a toy right on top of a baby’s nose, but it’s perfectly all right to hang it a foot away or more.

It is important that infant’s eyes be examined promptly if there is a question about whether they are straight, because an eye that is always crossed will gradually become completely useless if efforts are not begun early to make the child use it. When the two baby eyes do not coordinate and converge on an object, each eye will see a somewhat different scene; the child sees double.

This is so confusing and uncomfortable that the brain automatically learns to ignore and suppress the vision of one eye. Over the first couple of years, the brain loses the capacity to process visual information from the suppressed baby eyes, and the eye will for all intents and purposes be blind. If this goes on too long, it becomes impossible to bring back the vision in that eye. This condition is known as lazy eye.

The eye doctor’s job is to promptly put the lazy back to work, usually by having the child wear a patch over the good eye for long periods of time. The eye doctor may also prescribe glasses to further encourage the coordinated use of both baby eyes. Then comes the decision as to whether there should be an operation. Occasionally, several operations have to be performed before the result is satisfactory.

Common diaper Baby Rashes – Most babies have sensitive skin in the early months. The diaper region is particularly apt to suffer because diapers retain water next to the tender skin and don’t allow the area to breathe. In fact, any of us would get a rash in the groin if we had to wear a diaper 24 hours a day. That’s why the best treatment for almost any baby rashes due to any diaper is usually to have the baby go diaper less for as long as possible—a few hours a day is ideal. Right after a bowel movement, for example, is a good time to let your baby hang in the breeze, since there is less likelihood of action in that area in the near future.

Fold a diaper underneath your baby or put him on a large waterproof pad, and try to keep the diaper under him (even so, boys are apt to spray—so keep some paper towels handy). The warm air and lack of contact with material usually does the trick. Almost all babies develop a few spots of diaper baby rashes from time to time. If it is slight and goes away as fast as it came, no special treatment is necessary, except air-drying.

Baby Rashes

Don’t wash the diaper area with soap while there is a rash, because soap can be irritating. Use plain water instead of diaper wipes. You can give the skin a protective coating by slathering on petroleum jelly or any of the diaper ointments. Some diaper services use special rinses in the case of diaper baby rashes. If you wash the diapers at home, you can add a half cup of clear white vinegar to the last rinse.

In older babies, diaper baby rashes are often caused by the skin’s being in prolonged contact with the warm, acidic urine. Air-drying and frequent diaper changes usually do the trick. A diaper rash caused by yeast (also called candida) will have bright red spots that often come together to form a solid, red area bordered by spots. The folds in the diaper area are usually bright red with bright red spots on the prominences. Treatment is with a prescription antiyeast cream. A rash with blisters or pus (especially with fever, but even without) is likely to be causes by bacteria and should be treated by a doctor.

Baby Rashes from diarrhea – Irritating bowel movements during an attack of diarrhea sometimes cause a very sore rash around the anus or a smooth, bright red rash on the buttocks. The treatment is to change the diaper just as soon as it becomes soiled no small task. Then clean the area with oil or, if the area is too sore to wipe, hold the baby’s bottom under warm water from a running faucet, pat him dry, and apply a thick covering of a protective ointment ( one brand is as good as another). If this doesn’t work, the diaper should be left off and the diaper area exposed to the air. Sometimes it seems that while the baby has diarrhea, nothing helps very much. Fortunately, this rash cures itself soon after the diarrhea is over.

Baby Rashes on the face – There are several mild face rashes that babies have in the first few months that aren’t definite enough to have names but are very common. Milia are minute shiny white pimples without any redness around them. They look tiny pearls in the skin. In this case, the oil glands in the skin are producing oil, but since they haven’t opened up to the skin yet, the oil packets just sit there. Over the next weeks or months, the oil ducts open up and the oil is expressed. Some babies have collections of a few small red spots or smooth pimples on the cheeks and forehead. They look like acne, and that’s exactly what they are. They are caused by exposure to the mother’s hormones in the womb. These may last a long time and get a parent quite upset. At times they fade then get red again. Different ointments don’t seem to do much good. These baby rashes and spots always go away eventually.

Erythema toxicum consists of splotchy red baby rashes patches that are a quarter two a half inch in diameter, some with a tiny white pimple head. In darker-skinned infants, the splotches can be purplish in color. They come and go on different parts of the face and body. We don’t know what causes this common rash, but once it goes away, it doesn’t come back. Larger, pus-filled blisters or pimples may be infections and should be reported promptly to the doctor or nurse practitioner.

Baby Rashes on body and scalp – Prickly heat is very common in the shoulder and the neck region of the babies when hot weather begins. It is made up of clusters of very small pink pimples surrounded by blotches that are pink in light-skinned babies and may be dark red or purplish in dark-skinned ones. Tiny blisters form on some of the pimples. When they dry up they can give the rash a slightly tan look. Prickly heat usually starts around the neck. If it is bad, it can spread down onto the chest and back and up around the ears and face, but it seldom bothers a baby. You can pat this rash several times a day with absorbent cotton dipped in a solution of bicarbonate of soda (one teaspoon bicarbonate of soda to one cup water). Another treatment is dusting with cornstarch baby powder (we don’t recommend talcum powder anymore because it can irritate the lungs).

Baby Rashes most prickly heat goes away on its own without any special treatment. It is more important to try to keep the baby cool. Don’t be afraid to take off the baby’s clothes in hot weather. After all, there’s no evidence that early experience of nakedness leads to children’s growing up to be nudists. Cradle cap (seborrhea) is a usually mild disorder that appears as baby rashes patches on the scalp on the scalp that look like greasy yellow or reddish crusts. Seborrhea can also occur on the face, in the diaper area, and elsewhere on the body. You can oil the patches to soften them then wash with a mild dandruff shampoo, brushing out the scales that come from the patches. Don’t leave the oil on long before shampooing it out. Medicated shampoos and prescription medication can also help. Cradle cap rarely persists beyond the first six months.

Impetigo is a bacterial infection of the skin – Such baby rashes generally not serious, but it is contagious and should be treated promptly by your doctor or nurse practitioner. It starts with a very delicate small blister that contains yellowish fluid or white pus and is surrounded by reddened skin. The blister is easily broken, leaving a small raw spot. It does not develop a thick crust in infants as it does in older children. It’s apt to start in a moist place, such as the edge of the diaper or in the groin or armpit. New spots may develop.

Over-the-counter antibacterial ointments and air-drying can help. Arrange clothing and bedclothes so that they do not cover the spot or spots, and keep the room warmer than usual to compensate, if necessary. Prescription antibiotic ointment usually solves the problem quickly. During impetigo, disinfect the diapers, sheets, underclothing, nighties, towels, and washcloths, using ordinary sodium hypochlorite bleach in the wash according to the directions on the bottle to get rid of baby rashes.

Vaccines are formulations containing live or killed pathogens, their subunits or their toxins, minus their virulence. Currently available Immunizations schedule Vaccines may be classified into different types based upon the viability of organisms, contents and the methods of production. Some commonly used terms in vaccine technology are as follows

Live vaccines are highly immunogenic but require stringent storage conditions to maintain viability of organisms and cannot be used in severely immuno deficient children due to the risk of disseminated disease. These vaccines are usually supplied in lyophilized form to increase their stability and have to be reconstituted before use of immunizations schedule.

Inactivated or toxoid vaccines are less immunogenic but relatively heat-stable and can be used in immune compromised children. Polysaccharide vaccines use a specific component of the organism e.g. polysaccharides antigens from cell wall or capsule.

However, as polysaccharides are poor antigens, these immunizations schedule vaccines are usually ineffective in younger children before 2 years of age.

Conjugated vaccines are modified polysaccharide vaccines in which component polysaccharides are conjugated with some other potent antigen, termed as vehicle (e.g. mutant diphtheria or tetanus toxoid), to increase the immunogenicity. These conjugated vaccines can be used in children < 2 years of age, despite being polysaccharide vaccines.

Polyvalent immunizations schedule vaccines are the vaccines with two or more strains of the same organism e.g. OPV.

Combination vaccines are vaccines containing antigenic material from different organisms e.g. DPT, DT, MMR and others. These vaccines are useful to minimize the hospital visits, cost and number of pricks.

In addition to the basic antigenic material, vaccines may also contain other agents e.g. adjuvants, preservatives and need diluents.

Adjuvants e.g. aluminium hydroxide or phosphate etc., are added to augment the potency of vaccines, by prolonged release of antigen and the attraction of inununocompetent cells around the injection site.

Preservatives e.g. mercurial compounds or antibiotics e.g. neomycin, are added to prevent contamination of vaccines. These agents have been implicated in various adverse events of vaccines, earlier considered in immunizations schedule due to antigen component.

Measles vaccine does not contain any preservative and hence, severe septic reactions e.g. toxic-shock syndrome have been reported with its use beyond 3 hours of reconstitution.

Immunizations schedule

Immunizations schedule and number of essential vaccines for routine immunization vary from country to country and need to be revised time to time, depending on the

a) local disease prevalence,

b) epidemiological features e.g. common age of infection,

c) availability of safe and effective vaccine,

d) economic feasibility and cost-effectiveness, and

e) logistic considerations.

An appropriate immunization schedule considers that —

• Immunization should be completed as early as possible, as VPDs mostly occur in younger children.

• In immunizations schedule Different vaccines need to be given at different and appropriate ages – many vaccines e.g. DPT or measles do not induce satisfactory seroconversion if given before 6 weeks or 6 months respectively due to interference by transplacental antibodies.

Similarly, polysaccharide vaccines e.g. Typhoid or Pneumococcal vaccines are weakly immunogenic and not effective before 2 years of age. On the other hand, vaccines inducing cell mediated or local immunity (BCG and OPV respectively) may be given at birth.

• Immunizations schedule should be completed in minimum number of visits, to avoid inconvenience to parents and drop-outs.